Types of Construction Contracts and Bonds
建筑合同和担保的类型
1 Types of construction Contracts建筑合同的类型
1 Types of construction Contracts建筑合同的类型
There are many types of construction contracts and the owner generally makes the selection of contract type. The type of contract selected depends on the kind of work being performed and the conditions under which it is being performed.
建筑合同有许多类型，通常由业主来选择合同的类型。合同类型的选择取决于所执行胡工作的种类以及它是在什么样的条件下执行的。
1.1 Lump Sum Contract总价合同
Lump sum contract are typically used for buildings. The quantities of the materials required can be calculated with sufficient accuracy during the bidding process to allow contractor to submit a single lump sum price for the work .The quantity of items such as drywall, door frames, bathroom sinks, electrical conduit and wiring, and roof tiles can be calculated accurately from the plans.
总价合同通常使用在建筑领域。在招标过程中要对所需要的材料的数量进行足够精确的计算，以使承包人提交出该工作的一个价格总量。每个项目的数量，例如干式墙、门框、浴室的水池、输电的管道和线，以及房顶的瓦片都需要从计划时就进行精确的计算。
1.2 Unit Price Contract单价合同
Unit price contract is used in the work in which the total amount of materials necessary are impossible to be accurately calculated. Contractors submit a price for each item on a unit-price contract. Unit prices are multiplied by the engineer’s estimated quantities and totaled. The actual quantity varies from the estimated quantity by more than 15 or 20%,either above or below the estimated quantity, are sometimes subject to renegotiation of the unit price. When the actual quantity is low, the contractor may request a renegotiated higher price because the anticipated amount of earned overhead has been reduced. When the actual quantity is high, the owner may request a renegotiated unit price for the opposite reason. The goal of unit-price contracts is fairness to both parties.
单价合同用于不可能对所需的材料总量进行精确估算的工作。承包人提交的是一个单价合同里对每个项目定的价格。单位价格乘以工程师估计的量相差可以超过15%或20%，可能高于或低于估计的量，有时对单位价格还要进行协商。当实际的量较低时，承包商也许会要求重新确定一个较高的价格，因为预期所挣得的总额减少了。当实际的量较高时，业主因为相反的原因也许会要求重新定一个价格。单位价格合同的目的是公平地对待合同双方。
1.3 Cost Plus 成本附加
Cost plus(cost reimbursable)contracts are used in situations that make it difficult or impossible for either the owner or the contractor to predict their costs during the negotiation, bid, and award process. Factors that may make the calculation of costs impossible include unpredictable and extreme weather conditions such as would be encountered in the Antarctic, unknown transportation requirements to remote locations, combat or war, or contracts where the amount of effort that will be required depends on another contractor’s work.
成本附加(可回收费用)合同用于业主和承包人在谈判、投标和授权的过程中均很难或不可能确定他们成本的情况。有一些因素使得对成本进行计算是不可能的，包括不可预知的极差的天气情况(例如在南极地带可能遇到)，偏僻地区的不可预知的运输需求，争斗或战争，或者工作量需要依赖其他承包商的工作的合同。
Cost plus contracts take many forms, the most common being cost plus a fixed fee and cost plus a percentage. Most owners prefer cost plus fixed fee because then the amount of profit the contractor will earn cannot increase, thereby removing any incentive for the contractor to be anything less than thrifty, or to produce poor-quality work. Cost plus percent contracts may be fair in situations that are very difficult, or when the time to complete the work is not known with any certainty, but some incentives to maintain productivity are needed. A profit that can be earned in six months may not be attractive if there is a possibility that the work may require a year or two.
成本附加合同有许多形式，最普通的是正价加固定的附加费以及正价加上正价的一定百分比。大多数业主宁愿选择正价加固定的附加费，因为这样承包人所获得的利益总量不可能增加，因此除去了承包人会作出不节约或生产出较差质量工程的任何动机。正价加上正价的一定百分比的合同也许对条件十分艰苦的情况下是十分公平的，或者工程完成的时间不可确定时，但是为了保持生产率作出一些激励是需要的。如果工程有可能需要一年或两年，则仅由六个月所挣到的利润就不再有吸引力了。
1.4 Innovations and Trends改革和趋势
“ A+B” means cost plus time. The Department of Transportation will assign a value to each day the highway work is being performed and the contractors will then bid a price plus a number of days. The low bidder is determined as the low total of the value of cost plus time. It is, of course, very possible to select a low bidder who bids a higher price, but fewer days , than the other contractors.
A+B式合同是从欧洲传过来的相对较新的改革。它们是由运输局开发以减少公路建设的时间以及因此对交通流进行限制的时间。许多公路工程项目包括翻新、修复、改造以及加宽。真正的新建工程很少。A+B合同的目的是提供一种可以付给承包人报酬的方法，考虑补偿其定施工顺序和分段等方面的专业性，以使工程可以快速有效地完成。
There are other forms of contracts, each with its own specialized purpose. For instance, guaranteed maximum price contracts are sometimes used for negotiated work that is started before the design is complete, making it difficult or impossible for the contractor to estimate the price accurately. This type of contract is also sometimes used when one contractor defaults on a partially complete contract, and a second contractor finishes the project.
“A+B”的意思是成本加上时间。运输局对每天公路工程完成的数量进行指定，承包人投标给出的是一定的成本和所需的天数。以成本加上时间合计较低来确定低投标人。当然也有可能选择出价较高但是工作天数较少的低投标人，而不是其它的承包人。
合同还有其他一些形式，每个都有它自己专门的目的。例如，担保最高价格的合同，用在设计完成前就开始进行谈判的使用，这时承包人非常困难或不可能精确的估计出价格。这种形式的合同也经常用在一个承包人对只完成了一部分的合同的内容没有履行职责，另一承包人完成了这个工程的情况。
2 、订立合同的方法Contracting methods
Contracting methods refers to the contractual arrangements the owner users to procure a project, whereas contract types refer to how the contractor would be paid for performing the work.
订立合同的方法是指业主为了促成一项工程使用的合同的安排，但是合同形式是指怎样支付执行工程的承包人。
2.1 Design-Build设计—建造
Design-Build contract are exactly what the name implies. On contractor is responsible for both the design and construction. This type of contracting is growing in popularity. A design-build contract provides distinct advantages to the owner who no longer needs to referee disagreements between the designer and the contractor because they are working together under the sane contract. Design-build contracts are often structured on cost plus with guaranteed maximum price (GMP) basis. Often the savings below the GMP is shared by the owner and contractor.
设计—建造合同的意思就是它的名字所表现出来的。一个承包人在设计和建造上都有责任。这种类型的承包逐渐变得很流行。一个设计—建造合同给业主提供了明显的有利条件，他就不必在设计者和承包人之间意见不合时当调解人了，因为在同一个合同下他们是在一起工作的。设计—建造合同通常建立在一个成本加上一个对最大花费的担保(GMP)。
2.2 Design-build-operate设计—建造—运营合同
Design-build-operate are not as common as design-build contracts. They may be used for projects such as athletic arenas, water treatment plants, water purification facilities, and toll highways. The principle is that the contractor will retain some percentage of ownership in the facility, up to 100%, for a specified period of time, and operate the facility for a profit during that time to recoup the capital investment (total cost plus profit). The period of ownership by the contractor may vary from a few years to permanent. During the period of ownership, the contractor is responsible for all costs of ownership, and all profits resulting from ownership. In the case of athletic arenas, there is typically a revenue-or profit-sharing agreement with the team ownership or municipality.
设计—建造—运营合同并不象设计—建造合同那样常见。它们用于一些工程中，例如运动竞技场、水处理厂、水净化设施以及公路收费站。其原理是对于一个特定的时期内，承包人保持对设施的部分所有权，可以达到100%，在那段时间对设施进行运营一定利益来对投资资金(全部花费加上利润)进行补偿。承包人拥有所有权的期限可以从几年变化到永久性使用。在拥有所有权的期间，承包人以业主的身份对所有花费负责，并接受所有的利润。
3 Bonds (Guarantees) 担保(保证)
In any bond there are three parties-the principal (contractor), the surety (bonding company) and the obligee (owner). The surety and the principal make a joint and several guarantee to the owner, that is both parties are obligated to the owner.
任何一个合同都有三方的当事人—责任人(承包人)、担保人(公司担保)以及债权人(业主)。担保人和责任人形成一个联合体对业主作出一些担保，也就是这两个当事人对业主均亦责任。
3.1 Bid Bonds投标担保
Bid bonds have two purposes: (1) to guarantee the contractor will enter into a contract if determined to be the lowest responsible bidder and (2) to guarantee the contractor will provide the required payment and performance bonds, and insurance policies. When the performance and payment bonds have been submitted, the contractor is released from the bid bond obligations.
Most bid bonds are what we a limiting amount.
投标担保有两个目的：(1)如果决定了最低的责任投标人则要保证承包人签定合同，(2)保证承包人会提供必需的报酬并且执行担保，以及保险方针。当提交了履约担保和支付报酬的担保，承包人就解除了对投标合同的义务。
3.2 Performance Bonds履约担保
Performance Bonds guarantee the performance of the contract requirements at the stated bid price. In effect, the surety is saying it guarantees the performance of the contractor, or it will complete the project as described in the plans and specifications. The surety is in the position of being asked to guarantee the contractor’s performance. Therefore, the contractor must demonstrate an ability to perform before the surety is willing to issue payment and performance bonds. The surety will visit the contractor’s home office and job sites, and will contact the owners of recently completed contracts.
履约担保保证在申明的投标价格下执行合同所需要胡内容。实际上，担保人会对合同的履行进行担保，或则会按照设计图和说明书描述的形式来完成工程。担保人处在被要求对合同的执行进行担保的位置。因此，在担保人乐于发给报酬和执行担保之前，承包人必须证明他有完成任务的能力。担保人会参观承包人的总公司以及工作地，并且会接触业主最近完成的合同。
Contractors must develop a long-standing working relationship with their surety, and they must learn to present their company in its most favorable light when applying for payment and performance bonds. They must work consistently with a surety who will underwrite projects with specific constraints of project type, location, and size. If a contractor defaults on performance of the contract, the surety who will underwrite projects with specific constraints of project type, location, and size .if a contractor defaults on performance of the contract, the surety has three basic choices:
承包人必须与他们的担保人发展一个长期存在的工作关系，当他们申请报酬和申请履约担保时，他们与担保人必须保持始终如一的工作关系，因为担保人在工程类型、位置和尺寸上有特殊约束情况下会承诺支付费用的。如果承包人执行合同时没有履行义务，则担保人有三个基本的选择：
(1) Buy back the bond. This amounts to giving he owner a check for the amount of the penal value of the bonds.
(2) Replace the contractor. Negotiate or advertise for bids for the purpose of retaining another contractor to finish the work.
(3) Finance the contractor. The bonding company runs the risk of spending more than the value of the bond, but this is still a common option because the contractor is familiar with the project.
Today most sureties try to replace the contractor.
(1)买回担保。让业主对担保处罚的数量进行检查。
(2)更换承包人。为了保证另一个承包人能够完成这项工作，要进行投标协协商或登出投标广告。
(3)为承包人提供经费。担保的公司有花费高于担保价值的风险，但是这仍然是一个共同的选择，因为承包人对工程是熟悉的。
现今大多数担保人都会努力尝试更换承包人。
3.3 Payment Bonds支付担保
The Miller Act of 1935 provides that on federal projects over $200,000,the contractor must furnish payment and performance bonds in a satisfactory amount. Most states have passed Little Miller Act legislation. Government agencies require bonds because contractors cannot place a lien on government-owned property. The Miller Act and state-level Little Miller Acts provide the mechanism to guarantee the performance of the general contractor, and that the subcontracors, labor, and suppliers will be paid.
1935年的Miller Act 供应给联邦工程超过200 000美元，承包人必须提供报酬，担保的执行达到了一个满意的程度。大多数州都通过了Little Miller Act 的立法。政府机构需要担保，因为承包人不能对政府所有的财产寄予拥有留置权的希望。 Miller Act以及州级的Little Miller Acts提供了对总承包人，以及次承包者、劳动者以及供应商担保的机制，使得他们都可以获得酬金。
